A modern-day Israeli who opens the book of Psalms is often surprised that despite being a native Hebrew speaker it is very difficult to understand. The biblical Hebrew language, especially in the poetic texts, can be challenging and different from modern Hebrew, and it can be very discouraging for those trying to read. This is obviously not a difficulty for English speakers because they have a translation that is fairly easy to understand. But whether you are reading the original Hebrew or a translation in your mother tongue, it is important for you to remember that you are reading poetry \u2013 and poetry can deliver its message in ways that, if you are unaware, you may well miss. Moreover, since the poetry was written in Hebrew, much of the beauty and power is connected to word plays, repetitions and so on, that may be lost in translation. But don\u2019t despair! Biblical poetry carries riches that once you have tasted of their beauty and power you will only want to discover more and more. With a little understanding of the way that Hebrew poetry functions, and a little work on your part, you can start appreciating the poetry and delve deeper into the ways that it carries meaning \u2013 and you will find that the riches you gain are well worth the effort you put in. In this article, we will point out some of the things that are important to notice when you read biblical poetry, in the hope that this will help widen the horizons of your understanding.<\/p>\n
It\u2019s important to remember that poetry in the Tanakh (the Old Testament) is not limited to the book of Psalms. There are poems and songs in other biblical books. In the Pentateuch there are several, the Song of Deborah is found in Joshua 5, Hannah\u2019s prayer in 1 Sam. 2:1-10 is a poem, and so on. In addition to this, there are books that are written wholly or partly in a poetic style (many of the prophetic books, Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes…). In all of these the poetry holds hidden treasure.<\/p>\n
Firstly, we need to think about a question that may seem basic but is quite important: what makes a literary text poetic? There are, of course, many opinions amongst literary scholars concerning this, both in connection to poetry in general and to Biblical poetry in particular. It is possible, however, to identify several elements that characterize a poetic text:<\/p>\n
Terseness<\/strong> \u2013 Poetry is usually pithy and terse, and this is certainly true of Biblical poetry. The message is communicated in a few words, as opposed to narrative. There is, therefore, a large value put on each word, and it is important to understand the part that each word plays in its context. This difference between the way that something is expressed in narrative and in poetry can be illustrated in the way that the story of Sisera is related in narrative and its expression in poetry:<\/p>\n Narrative<\/span><\/p>\n He said to her, "Please give me a little water to drink, for I am thirsty." So she opened a bottle of milk and gave him a drink; then she covered him.<\/em> (Judg. 4:19)[1]<\/a><\/a><\/span><\/p><\/blockquote>\n Poetry<\/span><\/p>\n "He asked for water and she gave him milk;<\/em> Firstly, it\u2019s important to notice that there are less words in the way that the story is expressed in poetry, and this is even more obvious in Hebrew. In Hebrew the phrases \u2018He asked for water\u2019 and \u2018she gave him milk\u2019 are only two words each, and there is no \u2018and\u2019 between them. Two of the main ways in which this characteristic of terseness functions in Biblical poetry is by means of the literary devices called parallelism and metaphor.<\/p>\n Parallelism<\/strong> \u2013 One of the things that you will notice while reading Biblical poetry is the literary device called \u2018parallelism\u2019, which is, as the name suggests, a kind of paralleling of two (or more) short sentences or phrases. Parallelism is not limited to poetry in the Bible but its very frequent use is far more characteristic of poetry. The example mentioned previously from Judg. 5:25 is written in Hebrew as \u2018parallelism\u2019 – literally: \u201cWater he requested \u2013 milk she gave\u201d. We will return to this further on in the article.<\/p>\n Metaphor<\/strong> \u2013 Poetry is characterized by figurative language. Metaphor, as described by Israeli literary critic Shimon Sandbank, is \u201ca mutually significant meeting of two different thoughts or concepts, one as the main thought and the other as the secondary thought. Or, in other words, metaphor is the \u2018conceptualization\u2019 of one area of thought in terms of an area of thought that is different from it.\u201d[2]<\/a> We will also return to this later.<\/p>\n Integration and connectivity<\/strong> \u2013 Together with terseness, poetry is characterized by the connections between its parts. The different parts, the different literary devices, form an association by means of their juxtaposition and relationship one to another in different ways that demand from us as readers to think about the significance of this association and the message that it conveys.<\/p>\n Individuality<\/strong> \u2013 It is very important to recognize the individuality of each poem and each poetic text. This characteristic is conveyed by all the expressions and literary devices made use of in the poem. One of the literary thinkers who wrote about poetry, Michael Riffaterre, called this individuality the \u201csub-code\u201d of the poem. A kind of special language belonging to and characterizing that poem, which the reader must learn in order that the poem will speak for itself, and in order that the reader does not force on that poem the form or expression of another poem. Appreciation of the poem\u2019s individuality serves to excite the reader and add to both his understanding and his enjoyment, seeing that each poem contains a world of discovery.<\/p>\n In order to read Biblical poetry in a manner that will let the text express itself in its own way and lead us to its message, it is very important to understand and take note of the characteristics mentioned above. To that end, we look at the individual words, the way they are integrated into their context, and the overall picture that the poem presents.<\/p>\n A poem is made up of words (of course). At times, the potency of a word is made clear only in the framework of its relationships with the other words that are around it, and sometimes one word can have the power of a key to open a room or even a whole edifice of meaning. The reader of any kind of literature must read the words with an awareness of both their meaning and their contribution to the whole. This is true especially of poetry, one of whose characteristics is the conveying of much meaning in few words. This trait heightens the importance of being sensitive to the meaning of each word and its role in the poem.<\/p>\n A word has a literal meaning that appears in its dictionary definition. In many cases a word has several nuances to its meaning and even several different meanings. It is often the case that in addition to its dictionary definition a word may have an accompanying connotation, and sometimes more than one. These are the associated meanings and connotations that are connected to a word associatively in different environments and cultural settings. It is critical, as a foundation to the understanding of a poem, to check the different meanings of the individual words.<\/p>\n In reading Biblical poetry, two factors are highly important in this regard:<\/p>\n As already mentioned, it is critical to understand the meaning of each word and to examine it in context in order to grasp its function in the text. We could take the Hebrew word \u2018lalekhet\u2019<\/em>, whose dictionary meaning is \u2018to move forward by foot\u2019, or simply \u2018to walk, to go\u2019. In different contexts this word can, however, have associated meanings and can function in different ways:<\/p>\n 1. I was glad when they said to me, "Let us go<\/strong> to the house of the LORD."<\/em> Psalm 122 speaks of Jerusalem and her importance related to the house of the LORD within her (take note that the Psalm opens and closes with \u2018the house of the LORD\u2019). The first thought in the Psalm concerns the ascent by foot to Jerusalem and an inflection of the word \u2018lalekhet\u2019<\/em> (\u2018let us go\u2019) speaks of walking in the normal way in which it is understood.<\/p>\n 2. Even though I walk<\/strong> through the valley of the shadow of death, I fear no evil,<\/em> Here David describes a situation he went through which he compares to walking through a fearful valley. In the picture described, the meaning of \u2018lalekhet\u2019<\/em> is on the one hand the normal meaning of the word, walking through a valley. But since the Psalm is speaking metaphorically of God\u2019s relationship with David as that of a shepherd and his sheep, we understand that the word is figuratively describing David going through a very difficult and painful situation.<\/p>\n 3. How blessed is the man who does not walk<\/strong> in the counsel of the wicked,<\/em> In this case the word \u2018walk\u2019 is part of a series of verbs \u2013 walk, stand, sit \u2013 that in their context figuratively describe different stages of involvement in the ways of the wicked. It refers, therefore, to a certain aspect of behavior and not to physical walking.<\/p>\n 4. Turn Your gaze away from me, that I may smile again before I depart<\/strong> and am no more.<\/em> (Ps. 39:13 – Hebrew v. 14)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n The poet prays that the Lord will remove the difficulties that he feels God has brought on him before he \u2018departs\u2019 or \u2018goes\u2019 (from the word \u2018lalekhet\u2019<\/em>). So here, the word actually means departing into death.<\/p>\n These are a few simple examples of different meanings of the same word according to its function in different contexts.<\/p>\n Sometimes one word can express a complete thought. \u201cNo!\u201d and \u201cYes!\u201d are examples of this. In Hebrew, as opposed to English, a verb can contain the subject in itself \u2013 so \u201cI am going\u201d and \u201cI am coming\u201d are in Hebrew complete thoughts expressed in one word. But, in fact, these words also need a context \u2013 to whom, and concerning what, is said \u201cNo!\u201d or \u201cYes\u201d? Who is the speaker that says, \u201cI am going\u201d or \u201cI am coming\u201d, and to whom are they speaking? From where, and to where, is he going or coming? Even in these cases it is clear that a word cannot stand by itself in isolation from any context. Usually, a whole thought is conveyed by at least a few words together. Words, therefore, combine with other words in order to express an idea. Words are combined to form clauses and sentences. But there are different ways in which these sentences are formed in accordance with the type of speech or writing in which they are being used. The reader of the book of Psalms, or of poetic texts that are found in the Prophets and in books like Proverbs and Job, will recognize three noticeable ways in which the thoughts are expressed: parallelism<\/strong>, repetition<\/strong>, and metaphor<\/strong>.<\/p>\n Parallelism expresses a thought or a message by means of two or three adjacent semantic units, or \u2018versets\u2019, in a poetic line. There are various ways of referring in English to these adjacent units, but here we will adopt the term \u2018versets\u2019 (a term used by Benjamin Harshav, Robert Alter, and Benjamin D. Sommer). These versets can be connected semantically, grammatically, or even by similar sounding words.<\/p>\n The older approach to parallelism emphasized the similarity between the adjacent versets and accordingly it defined different types of parallelism. The three types that were first identified (by Robert Lowth in 1753[3]<\/a>) were termed \u2018synonymous\u2019, \u2018antithetic\u2019 and \u2018synthetic\u2019. They described different ways in which the adjacent versets related to each other. Over time, several more types were added to these. Here we will present some examples to demonstrate these different types:<\/p>\n Trust in the LORD with all your heart Here the opposites represent different sides of the same idea. This is an example of how expressing an idea by presenting its opposites can both strengthen and widen the message.<\/li>\n How blessed is the man<\/em> In this example each verset adds to the description of the process by which a man can potentially err from the right path. Each verset builds on the previous one but not with a synonym or antonym.<\/li>\n Those who sow in tears\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 shall reap with joyful shouting.<\/em> (Psalm 126:5)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n In this verse there are two parallel elements between the versets. One belongs to an agricultural process that begins with \u2018sowing\u2019 and ends with \u2018reaping\u2019. The second describes the emotions (\u2018in tears\u2019 and \u2018with joyful shouting\u2019) of those involved in each part of the agricultural process. Almost all English translations have put the parallel elements in the adjacent versets in the same order \u2013 first those who sow and those who reap and second the emotions they feel. In Hebrew, however, the order in the two versets is introverted, and a translation with a more literal word order would look like this:<\/p>\n Those who sow<\/span> in tears\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 with joyful shouting<\/strong> shall reap<\/span>.<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n By this change in order, the descriptions of the workers emotions have been put one next to the other and in this way the contrast between them is highlighted. At the same time, putting \u2018those who sow\u2019 at the beginning of the first verset while the statement that they \u2018shall reap\u2019 is put at the end of the second verset gives an impression of the length of the process, or at least how long it feels to those involved. It also puts the emphasis on the certainty of the result, that however they have felt, even being \u2018in tears\u2019 during the sowing, they shall surely reap. Those sowing<\/span> in tears, with singing do reap.<\/span><\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/li>\n Then our mouth was filled with laughter\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 and our tongue with joyful shouting<\/em> (Psalm 126:2)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n The verb \u201cfilled\u201d in the first verset does not have a parallel word in the second verset, but it is understood to be applicable in the second verset as well despite its absence. These are some of the various categories of parallelism that have been identified based on the older approach that pointed to the similarities between the different versets. A newer approach to parallelism emphasizes what is different between the connected versets. James Kugel[4]<\/a>, for example, proposed that, in general, the second verset, while continuing from the first, expands and adds emphasis (according to the pattern: A, and what is more B). Another scholar, Robert Alter understood the difference as a matter of development, or of focusing, specification, concretization in the second verset of what is said more generally in the first.[5]<\/a><\/p>\n Another Biblical scholar, Adele Berlin, rightly said that parallelism does, in fact, reflect both these elements \u2013 what is similar or identical between the versets, and what is different.[6]<\/a> What is important to understand is that there is in fact no clearly defined blueprint for parallelism and it is not possible to categorize all the \u2018kinds\u2019 of parallelisms in a mechanical way, because of the great variation in the relationships between the different paralleled versets. We should, therefore, acknowledge both the fluidity and the uniqueness of the way that parallelism works.<\/p>\n It is important, therefore, for the reader to ask several questions when trying to get to the heart of a parallelism:<\/p>\n What is the nature of the connection between the versets in this parallelism? What joins them and what differentiates them? What unites them and what causes tension between them? What is similar between them and what is dissimilar, contrasting, or even opposite?<\/em><\/p>\n The nature of the relationship between the parallel versets can take several forms and be on several levels \u2013 a semantic relationship (connected to the message and idea), a linguistic or grammatical relationship (and there are those who think that the grammatical relationship is the distinguishing characteristic of parallelism), or a relationship that is connected to similar sounds or rhythms (meter). These levels of relationship can stand alone or be found together.<\/p>\n To illustrate, here are several examples:<\/p>\n Praise God in His sanctuary; Praise Him in His mighty expanse.<\/em> (Psalm 150:1)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n In this example there is a clear and direct relationship in the message of the two versets \u2013 a call to praise God in His holy place (\u201cin His sanctuary\u201d; \u201cin His mighty expanse\u201d). But this semantic relationship is also reflected in a complete grammatical relationship between the versets, as becomes clear when we write every element separately:<\/p>\n Praise \u00a0\u00a0 God\u00a0 \u00a0 in\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 His\u00a0 \u00a0 sanctuary<\/em> Moreover, in Hebrew, the meter in both versets is also parallel.<\/p>\n In the next example there are several levels of similarity between the versets, but also differences:<\/p>\n Consider and answer me, O LORD my God;<\/em> Here, the verb in both versets is at the beginning and is a request (\u201cConsider\u201d, or \u201clook closely\u201d, in the first verset; \u201cenlighten\u201d in the second). In both cases the request is to the LORD. This similarity creates a positive relationship which connects the two versets at the outset and includes a clear semantic connection \u2013 David\u2019s request that the LORD \u2018looks closely\u2019 is parallel to the request that He \u2018enlightens\u2019 David\u2019s eyes.<\/p>\n But there are also differences between the versets. In the first verset David turns to the LORD directly by name and acknowledges his personal relationship with Him by calling Him \u201cmy God\u201d. In comparison, in the second verset he highlights the danger that awaits if the LORD does not come to his aid (\u201cor I will sleep the sleep of death\u201d). Since, therefore, the relationship between the two versets has already been established, this difference only goes to strengthen the power of the whole entreaty. In Hebrew there is also another element, one of similar sounds, that adds to the connection between the versets and highlights the difference. In the first verset the first two words are verbs, \u201chabita, aneni\u201d (\u201clook, answer me\u201d). The second verset also opens with a verb, \u201cha\u2019ira\u201d (\u201cenlighten\u201d), but then, instead of a second verb, has the expression \u201ceinai\u201d (\u201cmy eyes\u201d) which sounds similar in Hebrew to the verb \u201caneni\u201d in the first verset. This creates an additional connection between the first words of the versets by making them sound similar. This similarity at the beginning of the versets highlights the difference in the second half of the versets and makes it more obvious. In this way the message is brought home with even more power \u2013 if You do not look and answer, if You do not enlighten my eyes\u2026I will die!<\/p>\n Another characteristic of Hebrew poetry is repetition. This comes in many shapes and forms \u2013 sounds, words, ideas, grammatical structures, and even whole sentences. Parallelism can, in fact, be seen as expressing a form of repetition. Repetitions not only beautify and adorn the poem but often contribute significantly to the communication of its message. It is, therefore, critical to be sensitive to these repetitions and ask ourselves what role they play and how each repetition contributes to the poem and its message.<\/p>\n 9 They do not drink wine with song; Strong drink is bitter to those who drink it.<\/em> The transliteration (source: http:\/\/www.qbible.com\/hebrew-old-testament\/<\/a>) of these verses reads:<\/p>\n 9 BaSHiyr lo yish'T\u00fb-y\u00e4yin y\u00ebmar sh\u00ebkh\u00e4r l'shot\u00e4yw<\/em> In verse 10 there is a clear overlap between a repeated sound and the idea it portrays: after the destruction of the city of chaos in the first verset of verse 10, the second verset speaks of the shutting up of every house. The repetition of the hard sounding \u2018B\u2019 creates an effect of things being broken and smashed and doors being slammed shut with a bang. There are other hard sounds in this verse (10) that add to this effect (Q, T, G, K). How long,<\/strong> O LORD? Will You forget me forever?<\/em> The question \u201cHow long?\u201d is repeated four times and in this way, it is clearly emphasized that the psalmist feels that what he is going through seems endless.<\/p>\n In Psalm 1, the Hebrew word \u201cderekh<\/em>\u201d (\u201cway, path\u201d) appears at the beginning and at the end of the Psalm. Since translators have a number of words at their disposal to translate the same word in Hebrew, they often choose different translations, which leads to the repetition becoming lost. As mentioned earlier, it\u2019s worth consulting a literal translation like Young\u2019s Literal Translation (1862\/1898). Young\u2019s Translation has the following:<\/p>\n Opening (Psalm 1:1):<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n O the happiness of that one, who hath not walked in the counsel of the wicked. And in the way<\/span> of sinners hath not stood, and in the seat of scorners hath not sat<\/span>;<\/em><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n Closing (Psalm 1:6):<\/p>\n For the LORD knoweth the way<\/span> of the righteous:<\/em> In the last verset \u2013 \u201cbut the way of the ungodly shall perish\u201d \u2013 the word \u201cderekh<\/em>\u201d repeats the meaning it has in the first verse in describing the behavior of the wicked (who also are mentioned in the first verse). But the word is also repeated in relation to the behavior of the righteous \u2013 \u201cFor the LORD knoweth the way of the righteous\u201d \u2013 and in this case the repetition produces a stark contrast between the behavior of the righteous and the wicked.<\/p>\n At times the word that is repeated is found some distance from its first occurrence but is, none the less, very clearly connected in the way that it develops an idea. This can be seen, for example, in Psalm 73. This Psalm presents the problem and struggle of the believer who sees around him the success of the wicked and the tension that this creates with God\u2019s righteousness. In the end he finds the solution in the presence of God, where he understands anew the end of the wicked and the unsurpassed value of his personal relationship with God. In this Psalm the verb translated \u2018to place, set, array\u2019 or \u2018to appoint\u2019 (\u201csh\u0203thath<\/em>\u201d) appears three times:<\/p>\n Verse 9 They have set<\/span> their mouth against the heavens,<\/em> Here the word \u2018set\u2019 describes the way in which the wicked speak with pride against God \u2013 they \u201cset\u201d their mouth against the heavens.<\/p>\n Verse 18 Surely You set them in slippery places;<\/em> In this verse the poet understands anew the end of the wicked. God \u201cputs\u201d them in places where they will slip and fall.<\/p>\n Verse 28 But as for me, the nearness of God is my good;<\/em> In the translations you will, unfortunately, miss the repetition here. At the end of the Psalm the poet declares what is really good as far as he is concerned. He says that he has \u201cset\u201d (\u201cmade\u201d) his refuge in the Lord GOD (or, more literally, he has \u201cset\u201d the Lord GOD as his refuge).<\/p>\n The repetitions here are loaded with meaning in that they compare between the activities or attitudes of each of the characters in the poem: the wicked, who speaks in pride against the LORD; God Himself, who humbles the wicked in the end; the Psalmist, who decides again to trust in God and that God\u2019s presence is his only true desire.<\/p>\n How blessed is the man \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0 who does not walk<\/strong> <\/span>in the counsel of the wicked,<\/em> The use of a series of words which describe bodily postures communicates a very strong message \u2013 being open to the advice of the wicked (\u201cwho does not walk in the counsel of the wicked\u201d) can be the beginning of a process, the end of which is to be comfortable enough with them to sit together as one of them (\u201cnor sit in the seat of scoffers\u201d). All of this is presented in the negative in order to describe a process, all stages of which the blessed man will avoid.<\/li>\n Do not deliver the soul of Your turtledove to the wild beast<\/span>;<\/em> This translation does not reflect the fact that the words translated \u201cto the wild beast\u201d in the first verset is actually the same word in Hebrew as that translated \u201cthe life\u201d in the second. Young\u2019s Literal Translation, on the other hand, translates thus:<\/p>\n Give not up to a company<\/span>, The soul of Thy turtle-dove,<\/em> If we compare these translations, we see an interesting situation. The literal translation reveals to us the repetition of the word while the NASB rightly translates the two occurrences of the word in a way that reflects the respective and different meanings of each occurrence! al-TiT\u00ebn l'chaYat<\/strong> nefesh T\u00f4rekh\u00e4<\/em> Here you can see the repetition of the word \u201cchaYat\u201d in the first and second versets. So, this is a case in which the same word is repeated but with different meanings. The result is a stark contrast and comparison between the two, the \u201cwild beast\u201d who would like to devour the psalmist, and his \u201clife\u201d which he is praying that the LORD preserves from the beast.
\nIn a magnificent bowl she brought him curds.\u201d<\/em> (Judg. 5:25)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nSo, how should I read Biblical Poetry?<\/h1>\n
1. The building blocks \u2013 words<\/h2>\n
The word\u2019s meaning \u2013 in itself and in context<\/h3>\n
\n
\nThere is no question that learning Biblical Hebrew is invaluable. But, having said that, even if you have not learnt Hebrew, you can make use of a vast array of tools that are available today, starting with the translation of the text to your own language. If you have a computer or mobile phone available to you then there are several good online tools that you can use for free. For starters, you can click on the \u201cRead the Bible\u201d found on the top of the page, that has a Bible study module provided by The Bible Society in Israel. This is one tool out of many that are available online. Whatever tools you are able to use, and even if you are simply reading a translation in your language, having a basic understanding of the way that Biblical poetry works can set you a long way on knowing what to look for and how to be sensitive to the way that the poetic devices can lead you deeper into the meaning of the text.<\/li>\n
\nIn poetry, the poet uses words in special ways, sometimes in ways that are very unusual, out of the ordinary, or even novel and innovative. Therefore, as readers, we should be ready for surprises. Of course, in many cases it is likely that the basic meaning of the word is relevant. This brings us to the next point.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
\nOur feet are standing Within your gates, O Jerusalem<\/em> (Ps. 122:1-2)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n
\nfor You are with me; Your rod and Your staff, they comfort me.<\/em> (Ps. 23:4)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n
\nnor stand in the path of sinners, nor sit in the seat of scoffers!<\/em> (Ps. 1:1)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n2. The building process: using words to convey an idea<\/h2>\n
Parallelism<\/h3>\n
\n
\nThis describes parallelism in which the adjacent versets repeat the content, form, and rhythm, but in different words.
\nPraise God in His sanctuary;
\n<\/em>Praise Him in His mighty expanse.<\/em> (Ps. 150:1)
\nMost of Psalm 150 is structured in this way. The question we need to ask is \u2013 why did the poet write in this way and what did he want to achieve by this? As we ask ourselves, one thing that stands out is the way in which the repetitions of different words strengthen the call to praise the LORD, making it both urgent and universal. Another result of this structure is making the Psalm easier to sing and remember.<\/li>\n
\nIn this kind of parallelism, the adjacent versets present opposites. In the book of Proverbs this kind of parallelism is common.<\/p>\n
\n<\/em>And do not lean on your own understanding.<\/em> (Proverbs 3:5)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n
\nThe two terms \u201csynthetic\u201d and \u201cclimactic\u201d have been suggested to describe types of parallelism, in which the two (or more) versets add onto each other in different ways.<\/p>\n
\nWho does not walk in the counsel of the wicked,<\/em>
\nNor stand in the path of sinners,<\/em>
\nNor sit in the seat of scoffers!<\/em> (Psalm 1:1)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n
\nIn this kind of parallelism, the order of the parallel words in the versets is inverted. Unfortunately, the normal English translation does not always catch this. We can see an example of this word inversion in Psalm 126:5.<\/p>\n
\nThere are many tools on the internet that can help you find the original order of the words. There are, for instance, interlinear Bibles. A Bible translation that can be useful here is Young\u2019s Literal Translation<\/em> (of 1862\/1898) which, in this particular case, translates in a way that preserves the original word order:<\/p>\n
\nIn many cases of parallelism, the second verset excludes an element found in the first in a way that it is \u2018understood\u2019 to be present even though it is not written.
\nFor example:<\/p>\n
\nThis phenomenon is called ellipsis and is, in fact, found in many kinds of parallelism.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
\nPraise\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Him \u00a0\u00a0 in\u00a0 \u00a0 His\u00a0 \u00a0 mighty expanse<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n
\nEnlighten my eyes, or I will sleep the sleep of death\u00a0<\/em> (Psalm 13:4 – Hebrew v. 3)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nRepetitions \u2013 in many shapes and forms<\/h3>\n
\n
\nIn Hebrew poetry the repetition of identical or similar sounds can be significant. This is, of course, generally not noticed in translation but it is well worth mentioning. If you want to check a poem in the Bible for its sounds, you can look at a transliteration (such as – http:\/\/www.qbible.com\/hebrew-old-testament\/<\/a> or https:\/\/biblehub.com\/interlinear\/<\/a> ) or even learn the Hebrew alef-bet. The important question here is: is there a relationship between the repetition of a particular sound and the idea that is being communicated?
\nTo illustrate let\u2019s take an example from Isaiah 24 (verses 9-10):<\/p>\n
\n10 The city of chaos is broken down; Every house is shut up so that none may enter.<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n
\n10 nish'B'r\u00e4h qir'yat-Toh\u00fb \u0161uGar K\u00e4l-Bayit miB\u00f4<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n
\nIn the light of this, it\u2019s interesting to ask if there is also a relationship between the sound \u2018sh\u2019 in verse 9 and the message of the verse. In that verse there is a repetition of the sound \u2018sh\u2019 \u2013 in each of the two versets in verse 9 this sound is repeated twice. If this was written in our day, we could say that the writer wanted to emphasis the \u2018sh\u2019 sound in order to remind us of someone saying \u2018shhh! to request quiet (reinforcing the idea in the verse to quieten the sound of partying and wild songs that accompany drinking). We cannot know if this was the reason Isaiah repeated the \u2018sh\u2019 sound because we don\u2019t know if \u2018shhh\u2019 was used in the same way then. But the point is, that it is worth asking here, and in other places, if there is a connection between the repetition of sounds and the message being portrayed.<\/li>\n
\nIt\u2019s common in Biblical poetry that a word is repeated, possibly in different forms, within the poem. As likely as not the repetition turns the reader\u2019s attention to something important. The repetition can produce different effects such as emphasis, comparison, presentation of opposites, of differences or of conflict, continuity, etc.
\nA good example of the repetition of a word, or words, in a way that produces emphasis is found in the opening of Psalm 13.<\/p>\n
\nHow long<\/strong> will You hide Your face from me?<\/em>
\nHow long<\/strong> shall I take counsel in my soul, Having sorrow in my heart all the day?<\/em>
\nHow long<\/strong> will my enemy be exalted over me?\u00a0<\/em>\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 (Psalm 13:1-2 – Hebrew vv. 2-3)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n\n
\n
\nbut the way<\/span> of the ungodly shall perish.<\/em><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 And their tongue parades through the earth<\/em><\/p>\n
\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 You cast them down to destruction.<\/em><\/p>\n
\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 I have made [set] the Lord GOD my refuge, That I may tell of all Your works.<\/em><\/p>\n\n
\nThe use of words from the same semantic field can enable the poet to communicate his message or to strengthen it. A semantic field is a sphere of meaning that different words can be connected to. For instance, the words \u201ceat\u201d, \u201cdrink\u201d, \u201cchew\u201d, and \u201cswallow\u201d all belong to the same semantic field.
\nThere are many ways in which words from the same semantic field can contribute to the message. Identifying the connection between the words is just the beginning for us as readers. Once the connection has been identified it is important to clarify how it contributes: Does it repeat and strengthen the same idea? Does it add to the idea and develop it? Does it set up a contrast?
\nA good example of the use of words from the same semantic field that are used to develop an idea is found in the first verse of Psalm 1:<\/p>\n
\nNor stand<\/strong> <\/span>in the path of sinners,\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Nor sit<\/strong> <\/span>in the seat of scoffers!<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n
\nSometimes similar words can be used that have the effect of a \u2018play on words\u2019. This can also happen when a particular word is repeated more than once but each time with a different meaning or nuance. Hebrew wordplay has been described as \u201can ambiguous interplay between both the sound and the meaning of words\u201d.[7]<\/a> This is another literary device that is hard to pick up on in translation. A good example is Psalm 74:19. In the NASB (1995) this verse is translated:<\/p>\n
\nDo not forget the life<\/span> of Your afflicted forever.<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n
\nThe company<\/span> of Thy poor ones forget not for ever.<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n
\nThis example shows how working with a literal translation can help you discover certain connections. It\u2019s worth also looking at the transliteration in order to make sure that it is the same word in Hebrew.[8]<\/a> In this case the transliteration that you can find on the qbible site is:[9]<\/a><\/p>\n
\nchaYat<\/strong> \u00e1niYeykh\u00e4 al-Tish'Kach l\u00e4netzach<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n
\nMaybe this example will also encourage you to take the step of learning the Hebrew alef-bet!<\/li>\n
\nThe clear repetition of certain elements at the beginning and ending of a poem (song, psalm), or a part of it, is called an \u201cinclusio\u201d. An inclusio usually involves some kind of linguistic repetition but also has an aspect that relates to the meaning. The inclusio contributes to the message, adding emphasis, contrast and comparison, expansion, development, or completion. Of course, though this device is by no means limited to Biblical poetry, it is one of its common features. It is important, therefore, to be aware of this device, and to ask ourselves when coming across it: what does this repetition express in this particular context?<\/p>\n\n
\nIn Psalm 126 there are some interesting and important repetitions. One of these is the repetition of the declaration in verse 5 and at the end of verse 6 that there will be rejoicing:
\nVerse 5: Those who sow in tears shall reap with joyful shouting<\/span>.<\/em>
\nVerse 6: He who goes to and fro weeping, carrying his bag of seed, shall indeed come again with a shout of joy<\/span>, bringing his sheaves with him.
\n<\/em>These two verses actually repeat the same idea, of the hardships that those who faithfully sow the seed go through, and the promise of harvest with great joy. Though the repetition of the joy expressed is clear in the translation, in the Hebrew text the repetition is even clearer. This can be seen in the original text or a transliteration, in which you will see in verse 5 B'riN\u00e4h<\/em> and in verse 6 v'riN\u00e4h<\/em>. In both cases the word for \u201cjoyful shouting\u201d is the same (riN\u00e4h<\/em>). In addition, the preposition is also the same, though in the first case it is expressed as a hard \u2018B\u2019 and in the second as a soft \u2018v\u2019. The repetition of this phrase expressing joy effectively marks the last section of the poem.
\nIf you read a literal translation, like Young\u2019s Literal Translation, you may notice that there is also a repetition at the opening and ending in the first section of the Psalm:
\nVerse 1: In Jehovah's turning back to the captivity of Zion, We have been<\/span> as dreamers.<\/em>
\nVerse 3: Jehovah did great things with us, We have been<\/span> joyful.<\/em><\/em><\/em>Again, in many translations the repetition is lost since it is connected with the verb which can be understood as referring to different times, even when the same form of the verb appears. The NASB has:
\nVerse 1: When the LORD brought back the captive ones of Zion, We were<\/span> like those who dream.<\/em>
\nVerse 3: The LORD has done great things for us; We are<\/span> glad.<\/em><\/em><\/em>But if you look at a transliteration you will see that in both cases the verb is the same (h\u00e4yiyn\u00fb<\/em>) and what comes after it has the same ending (-iym<\/em>), therefore there is also a repetition of sounds. This repetition forms an inclusio around the first section of the Psalm, thereby linking the declaration of being glad at the end of the section (verse 3) to the statement in verse 1 of being like those who dream. By doing this, what could have been ambivalent in the idea of dreaming is clarified as being something positive and expressing great gladness.<\/li>\n
\nWe have already seen the repetition of the word \u2018way\u2019 in Psalm 1. That repetition belongs, in fact, to a wider sequence of repetitions which connect the end of the Psalm to its opening, both literally and conceptually, in a way which generates closure.Opening: 1 How blessed is the man<\/em>
\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 who does not walk<\/span> in the counsel of the wicked<\/strong>,<\/em>
\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Nor stand<\/span> in the path [way] of sinners<\/strong>,<\/em>
\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Nor sit<\/span> in the seat of scoffers!<\/em>
\nClosing: 5 Therefore the wicked will not stand [arise]<\/span> in the judgment,<\/em>
\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous.<\/em>
\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 6 For the LORD knows the way<\/strong> of the righteous,<\/em>
\n\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 But